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Basic Anatomy and Physiology
Comprehensive Final Exam Review

 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

  1. Define anatomy, physiology, pathophysiology.
  2. List the levels of structural organization from smallest to largest.
  3. Define each of the levels of structural organization.
  4. Define homeostasis.
  5. List the functions that humans must perform to maintain life.
  6. List the survival needs of the human body.
  7. Define homeostasis and explain its importance.
  8. List and define the two homeostatic feedback mechanisms.
  9. Describe anatomical position.
  10. List and define each of the directional terms.
  11. Name and describe each of the 4 body planes/sections.
  12. Name the two major body cavities.
  13. List the subcavities in each major cavity.
  14. Use directional terms to locate each subcavity in relationship to most adjacent subcavity.
  15. List each of the 11 body systems.
  16. Describe the major functions of each of the 11 body systems.

 Chapter 2 Chemical Level of Organization

  1. Differentiate between matter and energy.
  2. Define chemical element and list the four elements that form the bulk of body matter.
  3. Explain how elements and atoms are related.
  4. List the subatomic particles and describe that masses, charges and positions in the atom.
  5. Define ion explaining how ions are formed.
  6. Name and define the two types of ions.
  7. Define molecule and explain how molecules are related to compounds.
  8. Select an element 1- 20 and identify:
    1. Atomic symbol
    2. Atomic number
    3. Atomic weight
    4. Mass number
    5. Number of protons
    6. Number of electrons
    7. Number of neutrons
    8. Number of electron shells
    9. Number of electrons in each shell
  9. Distinguish between ionic and covalent chemical bonds.
  10. Contrast synthesis, decomposition and exchange chemical reactions.

 Chapter 3 Cells Structure and Function

  1. Define cell, organelle, and inclusion.
  2. Identify the functions of the three parts of all cells:  cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
  3. Describe the structures of the plasma membrane.
  4. Locate and identify the function of the following organelles:
    1. Mitochondria
    2. Ribosomes
    3. Rough ER
    4. Smooth ER
    5. Golgi apparatus
    6. Lysosomes
    7. Cytoskeleton
    8. Peroxisome
    9. Centriole
  1. Locate and identify the function of the following nuclear structures:
    1. Nuclear envelop/membrane
    2. Chromatin
    3. Chromosomes
    4. Nucleolus
    5. Nucleoplasm
  2. Describe the following passive transport processes:
    1. Simple diffusion
    2. Facilitated diffusion
    3. Filtration
    4. Osmosis
  3. Describe active transport processes- solute pumping.
  4. Describe bulk transport including endocytosis and exocytosis.
  5. Compare and contrast phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

Chapter 4  Tissue Level of Organization

  1. List the 4 major types of tissues.
  2. Identify the functions of each type of tissue.
  3. Describe the two ways epithelial tissues are classified.
  4. Identify the subtypes of epithelial tissue with their location and function.
  5. List and describe the following connective tissue subtypes:
    1. bone
    2. cartilage
    3. dense fibrous - tendons and ligaments
    4. areolar
    5. adipose
    6. reticular
    7. blood
  6. List the 3 subtypes of muscle tissue with location and nervous control for each.
  7. Identify the two types of cells in nerve tissue with the function for each.

 Chapter 5 Integumentary System

  1. List the layers of the integumentary system.
  2. List and describe each of the layers of the epidermis.
  3. Explain the difference between thin and thick skin.
  4. Describe keratin including its function.
  5. List and describe the layers of the dermis.
  6. Name and explain the function of the muscle in the skin.
  7. Name the pigments in the skin.
  8. Describe the function of melanocytes.
  9. List the regions of the hair.
  10. Describe the function of the follicle.
  11. Describe the function of the following glands:
    1. sebaceous
    2. eccrine
    3. apocrine
    4. ceruminous
    5. mammary

 Chapter 6 Skeletal System

  1. List the functions of the skeletal system.
  2. Explain the four classifications of bones.
  3. Identify the structures in a typical long bone.
  4. List the two types of osseous (bone) tissue.
  5. Explain endochondral ossification.
  6. Locate and explain the significance of the epiphyseal plate/line.
  7. Define and give the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
  8. Define joint.
  9. Explain the functional and structural classification of joints.
  10. Identify bones involved in two types of fibrous joints.
  11. Identify bones involved in three types of cartilaginous joints.
  12. Identify bones involved in each of the following joints.
    1. ball and socket
    2. hinge
    3. pivot
    4. saddle
    5. condyloid
  13. Define each of the following movements of diarthrotic joints:
    1. flexion
    2. extension
    3. hyperextension
    4. abduction
    5. adduction
    6. rotation

Chapter 7 Muscular System

Review the muscle CD.

  1. Describe the similarities and differences in the structure and function of the three types of muscle tissue and indicate where they are found i the body.
  2. Explain the "bundle in a bundle" organization of the muscle organ.
  3. Describe the microscopic structure of the skeletal muscle and explain the role of actin and myosin in muscle contraction.
  4. Explain the role of the sarcomeres in muscle contraction.
  5. Describe the events occurring at the neuromuscular junction.
  6. Explain the role of calcium ions in muscle contraction.
  7. Describe three ways in which ATP is regenerated during muscle contraction.

 Chapter 8 The Nervous System

  1. Identify the 2 main divisions of the nervous system. with organs in each division.
  2. Describe the general structure of a neuron.
  3. Classify neurons structurally and functionally.
  4. Identify the names and functions of the neuroglia in the CNS and the PNS.
  5. Describe the composition of gray matter and white matter.
  6. Identify the function of the neurotransmitters at the neuromuscular junction.
  7. What is the difference between stimulus and impulse?
  8. List and explain the function of the two types of effectors.
  9. Trace the path of an impulse from stimulus to response using all three types of neurons and the brain.
  10. Identify the three different meninges with location of each.
  11. List the functions of each of the 6 regions of the brain.
  12. List the functions of each of the lobes of the cerebrum.
  13. Explain how the PNS, SNS and PSNS are related.
  14. Describe the reflex arc – structures, synapses, and flow of impulse.
  15. Explain the difference in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

 Chapter 11, 12, 13 Cardiovascular System

  1. Identify and describe the formed elements of blood.
  2. Describe the functions of each of the blood cells.
  3. Describe the plasma
  4. List the 5 different type of blood vessels in the order that oxygenated blood would flow leaving the heart.
  5. Describe the differences between arteries and veins.
  6. Name and locate each of the three layers of the heart wall.
  7. Trace the path of blood through the heart
  8. Compare the pulmonary and systemic circuits
  9. Explain the operation of the atrioventricular valves.
  10. Explain the operation of the semilunar valves.
  11. List and give function of each of the 4 heart chambers.
  12. Name the elements of the intrinsic conduction system of the heart and describe the path of impulses through this system.
  13. Define systole, diastole, stroke volume, and cardiac cycle.

Chapter 14  Lymphatic System and Immunity

  1. List the lymphatic vessels and trace the flow of lymph from production to return to blood circulation.

  2. Identify location and function of lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, Peyer's patches, and the spleen.

  3. Locate each of the three different clusters of tonsils.

  4. Describe the protective functions of the 1st line of defense - skin and mucus membranes.

  5. Explain the function of the phagocytes and natural killer cells in the 2nd line of defense.

  6. Describe the inflammatory process.

  7. Explain the function of complement and interferon.

  8. Explain how fever helps protect the body against bacteria.

  9. Define antigen and hapten.

  10. Name the two parts of the immune response and relate each to the specific lymphocyte involved.

  11. Compare and contrast the development of B and T cells.

  12. Explain the function of plasma and memory B cells.

  13. Explain the following antibody functions:  neutralization, agglutination, precipitation and complement fixation.

  14. Compare the primary and secondary humoral response to an antigen.

  15. Explain the function of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cell, and suppressor T cells.

  16. Explain how macrophages are antigen presenting cells.

  17. Describe each of the four types of acquired immunity.

  18. Identify each of the following grafts:  autografts, isografts, allografts, and xenografts.

 Chapter  15  Respiratory System

  1. List the respiratory conducting structures in order.
  2. List the respiratory exchange structures in order.
  3. Explain the process of inspiration.
  4. Explain the process of expiration.
  5. Identify the location of the three regions of the pharynx using directional terms.
  6. Explain the function of the vocal cords in determining pitch and volume.
  7. Explain the function of the false vocal cords.
  8. Describe the anatomy of the lungs.
  9. Explain the difference between ventilation and respiration.
  10. Explain the difference between external and internal respiration.
  11. Identify the serous membranes around the lungs.
  12. Describe the movement of respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) in external respiration.
  13. Describe the movement of respiratory gases in internal respiration.
  14. Define cellular respiration.
  15. Explain the nervous control of respiration by the medulla.
  16. Identify the muscles for ventilation and the nerves which innervate them.
  17. Define apnea, dyspnea, hyperventilation, and hypoventilation
  18. Describe each of the respiratory volumes and capacities.

Chapter 16 Digestive System

  1. List the organs of the alimentary canal in the order that food passes through.
  2. Define each of the functions of digestion:
    1. Ingestion
    2. Propulsion
    3. Mechanical digestion
    4. Chemical digestion
    5. Absorption
    6. Defecation
  3. Name the deciduous and permanent teeth and describe the basic anatomy of a tooth.
  4. Identify the source of the following digestive juices:
    1. salivary amylase
    2. pepsin
    3. intrinsic factor
    4. HCl
    5. Mucus
    6. Bile
    7. Pancreatic amylase
    8. Pancreatic lipase
    9. Trypsin
    10. Chymotrypsin
    11. Carboxypeptidase
    12. Disaccharidases
    13. Enterokinase
    14. Dextrinase
  1. Explain the process of carbohydrate digestion through the alimentary canal.
  2. Explain the process of protein digestion through the alimentary canal.
  3. Explain the process of lipid digestion through the alimentary canal.
  4. Explain how villi function in absorption.
  5. Name the end products of protein, fat and carbohydrate digestion.
  1. Identify the regions of the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
  2. Identify the functions of the following hormones controlling the digestive processes:  gastrin, histamine, cholecystokinin and secretin.
  3. Identify the functions of the large intestine.
  4. Locate each of the following sphincters and identify their functions:
    1. Cardioesophageal
    2. Pyloric
    3. Ileocecal valve/sphincter
    4. Hepatopancreatic

Chapter 18 Urinary System

  1. Describe the location of the kidneys in the body.
  2. Identify the following regions of a kidney:  hilus, cortex, medulla, medullary pyramids, calyces, pelvis, renal columns.
  3. Recognize that the nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney and describe its anatomy.
  4. Trace the path of arterial/venous blood flow through the kidney from aorta to inferior vena cava.
  5. Trace the path of filtrate flow through the nephron.
  6. Describe the process of urine formation, identifying the areas of the nephron and the substances that are filtered, reabsorbed and secreted.
  7. Explain the role of aldosterone in the regulation of blood pressure and blood volume.
  8. Explain the role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in regulation of water balance by the kidney.
  9. Explain the role of the renin-angiotensin system in blood pressure control
  10. Explain  how the kidneys maintain the acid-base balance of the blood.
  11. Describe the composition of normal urine.
  12. Describe the general structure and function of the ureters, bladder and urethra.
  13. Compare the length and regions of the male urethra to that of the female urethra.
  14. Define micturition.
  15. Describe the difference in control of the external and internal urethral sphincters.
  16. What is the functional unit of kidney?
  17. List the regions of the nephron in the order the filtrate would pass through.
  18. Identify the location and function of these three capillary beds:
    1. Glomerulus
    2. Peritubular
    3. Vasa recta
  19. Explain why filtration is so efficient in the kidney.
  20. Define acid.
  21. Define base.
  22. Define using pH numbers alkalosis and acidosis.
  23. Define using pH numbers neutral solution.
  24. Explain how buffers maintain homeostasis of acid and bases in the body.

Chapter 19 Reproductive System

  1. Identify the organs of the male reproductive system and the functions for each.
  2. Name the endocrine and exocrine products of the testes.
  3. Discuss the composition of semen and name the glands that produce it.
  4. Trace the pathway followed by a perm from the testes to the body exterior.
  5. Define erection, ejaculation, and circumcision.
  6. Define meiosis and spermatogenesis.
  7. Describe the structure of a sperm and relate its structure to its function.
  8. Describe the effect of FSH and LH on testis functioning.
  9. Identify the organs of the female reproductive system and the functions for each.
  10. Describe the functions of the primary follicle, Graffian follicle and corpus luteum of the ovary
  11. Define endometrium, myometrium and ovulation.
  12. Identify the location of the following regions of the female uterus:  cervix, fundus, body.
  13. Define oogenesis.
  14. Describe the influence of FSH and LH on ovarian function
  15. Describe the phases of the menstrual cycle.

Chapter 20 Development and Inheritance

1.  Explain the process of fertilization.

2.  Describe cleavage and blastocyst formation.

3.  Describe implantation.

4.  Describe each of the primary germ layers.

5.  Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype.

6.  Describe the differences between homozygous and heterozygous alleles.

7.  Describe the differences between dominant and recessive traits.

8.  Be able to predict the inheritance of a characteristic using a Punnett square.